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HISTORY OBJ
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INSTRUCTION: ANSWER FOUR(4) QUESTIONS IN ALL, AT LEAST ONE(1) FROM EACH SECTION.
SECTION A
(1)
Oral tradition is the transmission of historical information from one generation to another through word of mouth in the form of stories, songs, proverbs, myths, legends, and folktales. It is an important source for reconstructing the history of Nigerian societies that had no written records.
=IMPORTANCE=
(i) Source for pre-literate societies: Most Nigerian communities before 1800 had no written records, so oral tradition remains the major source of information about their origin, migration, and settlement.
(ii) Reveals origin and migration: It provides accounts of how various ethnic groups, such as the Yoruba, Igbo, and Hausa, trace their ancestry and movement to their present locations.
(iii) Preserves culture and customs: It helps historians understand the traditional beliefs, religion, festivals, customs, languages, and social institutions of different Nigerian societies.
(iv) Records political history: Oral tradition preserves information about rulers, dynasties, succession, wars, conquests, and the establishment of kingdoms and empires such as Oyo, Benin, and Kanem-Borno.
(v) Complements other historical sources: It is used together with archaeological evidence, linguistic studies, and written records to verify and reconstruct Nigerian history.
(vi) Explains inter-group relations: It provides information on trade, alliances, conflicts, and diplomatic relations among different Nigerian communities.
(vii) Fills gaps in written records: Oral tradition preserves information about events, personalities, and societies that were never documented in written records, making it indispensable for reconstructing early Nigerian history.
(viii) Provides eyewitness-based historical accounts: Many oral traditions originated from eyewitnesses and were carefully preserved by elders, traditional rulers, and professional storytellers, often containing details not found in foreign written accounts.
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(2)
The Kingdom of Benin was one of the earliest and most advanced centres of civilisation in Nigeria before 1800. It was noted for its strong political organisation, economic prosperity, artistic achievements, and organised society.
MAIN FEATURES OF BENIN AS AN EARLY CENTRE OF CIVILISATION IN NIGERIA:
(i) Centralised monarchy: Benin had a well-organised political system headed by the Oba, who was the supreme ruler and exercised both political and religious authority.
(ii) Efficient administrative system: The Oba was assisted by a council of chiefs and palace officials who helped in the administration of the kingdom and the maintenance of law and order.
(iii) Advanced art and craftsmanship: Benin became famous for its bronze and brass castings, ivory carvings, woodwork, and terracotta sculptures, which reflected a high level of artistic development.
(iv) Developed trade and commerce: Benin maintained extensive trade with neighbouring communities and later with the Portuguese, exchanging goods such as pepper, ivory, cloth, beads, and later slaves.
(v) Well-planned city: Benin City had broad streets, well-arranged compounds, and one of the largest earthwork systems (walls and moats) in the world, providing security and orderly settlement.
(vi) Strong military organisation: The kingdom maintained a disciplined army that protected its territory and expanded its influence through warfare.
(vii) Rich cultural and religious life: Benin had elaborate traditional religious practices, colourful festivals, royal ceremonies, and deep respect for ancestors and the Oba.
(viii) Highly stratified society: The society was organised into different social classes, including the Oba, chiefs, nobles, guilds of craftsmen, traders, and commoners, each with defined roles.
(ix) Specialised guild system: Skilled craftsmen belonged to organised guilds that produced high-quality works for the palace and the kingdom.
(x) Effective judicial system: Laws were enforced by the Oba and his chiefs, ensuring justice, peace, and stability within the kingdom.
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(3)
Before 1800 AD, the Birom (Berom) people occupied the Jos Plateau in present-day Plateau State, Nigeria. They lived in independent village communities and did not develop a centralised kingdom like Benin or Oyo. Their socio-political system was based on kinship, age, religion, and communal cooperati
SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE BIROM BEFORE 1800 AD:
(i) Decentralised political system – The Birom had no central king or empire. Each village functioned as an independent political unit and managed its own affairs. Leadership was exercised at the village level, making the system decentralised and based on local autonomy.
(ii) Clan organisation: The society was organised into clans made up of families who traced their ancestry to a common forefather. Each clan occupied a particular territory and formed the basic political and social unit of the community. Loyalty to the clan promoted unity, cooperation, and mutual protection.
(iii) Leadership by village heads and elders: Every village was headed by the oldest or most respected elder, assisted by other elders. These leaders supervised the affairs of the community, settled disputes, maintained peace, allocated communal responsibilities, and represented the people in important matters.
(iv) Council of elders: The council of elders was the highest decision-making body in each village. It discussed matters relating to governance, security, land, marriage, festivals, and justice. Decisions were usually reached through consultation and consensus rather than by force.
(v) Influence of traditional religion: Religion played an important role in the political and social life of the Birom. Priests, diviners, and custodians of shrines conducted sacrifices, consulted the gods, and interpreted spiritual matters. They also advised community leaders and helped maintain peace and moral discipline.
(vi) Age-grade system: Members of the community were organised into age grades, each with specific responsibilities. Young men defended the community, cleared roads, built communal projects, and assisted during farming seasons, while women also participated in communal activities according to custom. This system promoted discipline, unity, and cooperation.
(vii) Agricultural economy: Farming was the main occupation of the Birom people. They cultivated crops such as millet, guinea corn, acha (fonio), and vegetables, while hunting, fishing, and animal rearing provided additional means of livelihood. Agriculture formed the economic foundation of their society.
(viii) Communal land ownership: Land was regarded as the collective property of the community or clan rather than individuals. Family heads and elders allocated portions of land to households for cultivation. This system ensured that members of the community had access to farmland and prevented land disputes.
(ix) Marriage and family system: The extended family formed the foundation of Birom society. Marriage was highly valued because it strengthened relationships between families and clans. Polygamy was practised, and children were trained to respect elders, obey community customs, and contribute to communal development.
(x) Customary laws and administration of justice: The Birom maintained law and order through customary laws and traditions. Cases involving land, marriage, theft, and other disputes were heard by the village head and council of elders. Judgements were based on accepted customs, while offenders were punished through fines, compensation, sacrifices, or other traditional sanctions to maintain peace and social harmony.
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SECTION B
(4)
The movement of slaves from the coast of Nigeria to the New World formed part of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, which lasted from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. During this period, millions of Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic Ocean to work on plantations and in mines in the Americas and the Caribbean.
(i) Capture of slaves: Most slaves were obtained through wars, raids, kidnapping, judicial punishment, or debt slavery. They were captured by African rulers, merchants, or slave raiders and sold to European slave traders.
(ii) Movement to the coast: After capture, the slaves were marched in chains from the interior of Nigeria to major coastal slave ports such as Bonny, Calabar, Brass, Lagos, and Badagry. Many died on the journey because of exhaustion, hunger, disease, and harsh treatment.
(iii) Confinement in slave barracoons: On reaching the coast, the slaves were kept in barracoons (slave camps) or forts, where they waited to be sold to European merchants. They were crowded together under poor sanitary conditions and were often inspected before purchase.
(iv) Sale and exchange: European traders exchanged manufactured goods such as guns, gunpowder, mirrors, textiles, alcohol, beads, and metal wares for slaves. The slaves became part of the triangular trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
(v) Transportation across the Atlantic (Middle Passage): The slaves were loaded into ships and transported across the Atlantic Ocean in a voyage known as the Middle Passage. They were chained together in overcrowded conditions with little food, water, or medical care. Many died from disease, starvation, suffocation, or physical abuse during the journey.
(vi) Arrival in the New World: The surviving slaves arrived in places such as Brazil, the West Indies, and North America, where they were quarantined, inspected, and prepared for sale.
(vii) Sale at slave markets: On arrival, the slaves were auctioned to plantation owners, mine operators, and wealthy settlers. Families were often separated, and individuals were sold to different buyers without regard for family ties.
(viii) Forced labour on plantations: The slaves were compelled to work on sugar, cotton, tobacco, coffee, and rice plantations, as well as in mines and households. They worked under harsh conditions without freedom or wages, and their labour contributed significantly to the economic development of the New World.
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(5)
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade had profound political, economic, social, and demographic effects on the Niger Delta area during the nineteenth century. Although some coastal states benefited economically, the trade also caused long-term instability and underdevelopment.
Effects of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade on the Niger Delta area:
(i) Growth of coastal city-states: The slave trade led to the rise and prosperity of coastal states such as Bonny, Brass, Calabar, New Calabar, and Opobo. These states became important commercial centres and gained wealth from acting as middlemen between the European traders and the hinterland.
(ii) Economic prosperity for some rulers and merchants: Chiefs, merchants, and middlemen accumulated enormous wealth through the sale of slaves. This wealth enabled them to acquire European goods such as firearms, textiles, alcohol, and luxury items.
(iii) Frequent wars and insecurity: The increasing demand for slaves encouraged wars, raids, kidnapping, and violence among communities. Many settlements were attacked solely to capture people for sale into slavery.
(iv) Depopulation: Large numbers of able-bodied men, women, and youths were exported to the Americas. This reduced the population and deprived the region of productive labour needed for agriculture, crafts, and other economic activities.
(v) Political instability: Rivalry among coastal states and local chiefs over the control of the slave trade resulted in frequent conflicts, succession disputes, and the collapse or weakening of some communities.
(vi) Introduction of firearms: European traders exchanged guns and ammunition for slaves. While this strengthened some states militarily, it also intensified warfare and made conflicts more destructive.
(vii) Disruption of agriculture and local industries: Many people abandoned farming and traditional occupations in favour of the lucrative slave trade. As a result, food production and local crafts declined in many areas.
(viii) Development of coastal ports and commerce: Major ports such as Bonny, Calabar, Brass, Lagos, and Opobo expanded into important centres of trade, attracting both African and European merchants and increasing commercial activities.
(ix) Growth of European influence: Continuous contact with European traders increased foreign influence in the Niger Delta. This eventually paved the way for missionary activities, legitimate commerce, and later British colonial rule.
(x) Transition to legitimate trade: After the abolition of the slave trade in 1807 and its gradual suppression, the Niger Delta shifted to the export of palm oil, palm kernel, and other agricultural products. This marked the beginning of the era of legitimate trade.
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(6)
The Sokoto Jihad of 1804 was led by **** against the Hausa rulers. The jihad succeeded because of a combination of religious, political, social, and military factors which enabled the movement to overthrow the Hausa kingdoms and establish the Sokoto Caliphate.
Factors that contributed to the success of the Sokoto Jihad of 1804:
(i) Charismatic and inspiring leadership : Uthman dan Fodio was a highly respected Islamic scholar, preacher, and reformer whose honesty, piety, and vast knowledge of Islam earned him the confidence of many people. His persuasive preaching attracted thousands of followers, including Fulani pastoralists, Hausa peasants, and Islamic scholars, who willingly supported the jihad and remained loyal to his leadership throughout the campaign.
(ii) Religious appeal and Islamic reform ideology: The jihad was presented as a religious obligation to purify Islam and eliminate the un-Islamic practices of the Hausa rulers, who were accused of combining Islam with traditional religious beliefs. This message appealed strongly to devout Muslims who desired the establishment of a true Islamic state governed by the principles of the Qur’an and the Sunnah.
(iii) Support of the Fulani pastoralists: The Fulani had long suffered discrimination, heavy taxation, and poor treatment under many Hausa rulers. They therefore rallied behind Uthman dan Fodio by providing soldiers, horses, food, and other resources. Their numerical strength and military experience greatly increased the fighting capacity of the jihadists.
(iv) Discontent with the Hausa rulers: Many Hausa kings were unpopular because of oppression, corruption, excessive taxation, injustice, and abuse of power. Traders, peasants, scholars, and ordinary people were dissatisfied with their rule and therefore supported the jihad as a means of bringing about justice, religious reform, and better government.
(v) Weakness and disunity of the Hausa states: The Hausa states such as Gobir, Kano, Katsina, and Zaria were politically divided and frequently fought one another. Because they failed to unite against the jihadists, they were defeated one after another, making the expansion of the movement much easier.
(vi) Effective military organisation: The jihadists maintained a disciplined and well-organised army with clear leadership and coordinated military operations. They planned their campaigns carefully, fought with determination, and maintained discipline among their troops, which contributed significantly to their victories.
(vii) Use of the flag system: Uthman dan Fodio appointed trusted followers as flag bearers and presented each with a flag authorising him to lead military campaigns in different parts of Hausaland. This decentralised method of leadership enabled several campaigns to be fought simultaneously and helped the jihad spread rapidly across the region.
(viii) Support of Islamic scholars (Ulama): Distinguished scholars such as Abdullahi dan Fodio and Muhammad Bello provided religious guidance, intellectual support, and administrative advice throughout the jihad. Their teachings strengthened the ideological foundation of the movement and encouraged many Muslims to participate actively.
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SECTION C
(7)
Nationalist activities in Nigeria before the Second World War (1939–1945) were promoted by political, economic, educational, and social developments that awakened political consciousness and encouraged Nigerians to challenge colonial rule and demand greater participation in the administration of their country.
Factors that promoted nationalist activities before the Second World War:
(i) Western education: The spread of Western education produced an educated elite made up of lawyers, teachers, journalists, doctors, and clergymen who became politically conscious. They understood the principles of democracy, liberty, and self-government and used this knowledge to challenge colonial rule through speeches, writings, and political organisations.
(ii) Growth of the nationalist press: Newspapers such as the Lagos Daily News and the West African Pilot exposed the injustices of colonial rule, criticised discriminatory policies, educated Nigerians on their political rights, and mobilised public opinion in support of nationalism and self-government.
(iii) Formation of political organisations: Political organisations such as the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) and the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) provided organised platforms through which Nigerians demanded constitutional reforms, greater political representation, and increased participation in government. They also trained many future nationalist leaders.
(iv) Racial discrimination: Nigerians suffered discrimination in employment, salaries, education, housing, and promotion in the civil service. The unequal treatment of Africans compared with Europeans created resentment and strengthened the determination of many Nigerians to fight for equality and self-rule.
(v) Economic exploitation: Colonial policies such as heavy taxation, low wages, monopolistic trade practices, and the exploitation of Nigeria’s natural resources for the benefit of Britain caused widespread hardship. These economic grievances encouraged many Nigerians to oppose colonial rule and support nationalist movements.
(vi) The Clifford Constitution of 1922: Although limited in scope, the Clifford Constitution introduced the elective principle, allowing a few Nigerians to be elected into the Legislative Council. This stimulated political awareness, encouraged the formation of political parties, and promoted organised nationalist activities.
(vii) Influence of Pan-Africanism: The ideas of Pan-Africanism, championed by Marcus Garvey and W. E. B. Du Bois, inspired Nigerians to unite with other Africans in the struggle against colonialism, racial discrimination, and foreign domination.
(viii) Growth of trade unions: Early trade unions and workers’ associations organised protests against poor working conditions, low wages, and unfair colonial labour policies. Their activities increased political awareness among workers and contributed significantly to the growth of nationalist consciousness throughout Nigeria.
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(8)
The Indirect Rule System was a system of colonial administration introduced by Lord Frederick Lugard, whereby the British governed Nigeria through existing traditional rulers and institutions instead of administering the people directly. The system was first introduced in Northern Nigeria, where it achieved considerable success before being extended to other parts of the country.
Features of the Indirect Rule System:
(i) Use of traditional rulers: Existing traditional rulers such as Emirs, Obas, Obis, and Chiefs were retained and used as agents of colonial administration. They governed their people on behalf of the British by maintaining law and order, implementing government policies, settling disputes, and supervising local administration.
(ii) Supervision by British officials: Although traditional rulers exercised authority, they remained under the close supervision of British Residents and District Officers. These officials guided local administration, approved major decisions, and ensured that traditional rulers carried out colonial policies faithfully.
(iii) Native Authority system: Traditional rulers and their councils were recognised as Native Authorities with legal powers to administer their areas. They made local by-laws, maintained peace and order, supervised community development, collected taxes, and carried out other administrative functions on behalf of the colonial government.
(iv) Native Courts: Native Courts were established and presided over by traditional rulers or their appointed representatives. They administered justice according to customary laws and traditions, provided such laws did not conflict with British colonial laws or the Repugnancy Clause. Serious criminal cases were referred to British courts.
(v) Native Treasury: Each Native Authority maintained a Native Treasury into which taxes and other local revenues were paid. The money was used to finance local administration, maintain courts, pay the salaries of native officials, and provide basic community services, all under British supervision.
(vi) Preservation of local customs and institutions: The British retained existing traditional institutions, customs, and laws instead of abolishing them. However, customs considered contrary to British laws or humanitarian principles were prohibited under the Repugnancy Clause, while acceptable customs continued to operate.
(vii) Tax collection: Traditional rulers were responsible for assessing and collecting taxes from their subjects on behalf of the colonial government. Part of the revenue was used for local administration through the Native Treasury, while the remainder was remitted to the colonial government.
(viii) Cost-effective administration: Indirect rule enabled the British to govern a vast territory with relatively few European officials. By relying on existing traditional rulers and institutions, the colonial government reduced administrative costs while maintaining effective control over the people.
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(9)
The military regime of Major General Muhammadu Buhari and Major General Tunde Idiagbon came to power through a military coup on 31 December 1983, overthrowing the civilian government of President Shehu Shagari. Although the regime lasted for less than two years, it introduced several policies aimed at restoring discipline, fighting corruption, and improving economic management in Nigeria.
Achievements of the Buhari/Idiagbon Regime (1983–1985):
(i) War Against Indiscipline (WAI): The regime launched the War Against Indiscipline (WAI) to promote discipline, honesty, punctuality, cleanliness, patriotism, and respect for public property. Nigerians were encouraged to obey rules, form orderly queues in public places, participate in environmental sanitation, and develop responsible civic attitudes.
(ii) Fight against corruption: The government vigorously pursued an anti-corruption campaign by investigating former public office holders accused of embezzlement, bribery, and abuse of office. Special military tribunals were established to try offenders, while looted public funds and properties were recovered.
(iii) Restoration of discipline in the public service: The regime enforced punctuality, accountability, dedication to duty, and efficiency among civil servants. Measures were introduced to reduce absenteeism, improve productivity, and ensure greater commitment to public service.
(iv) Economic austerity measures: Faced with a severe economic crisis, the government introduced austerity measures to reduce unnecessary government spending, control imports, conserve foreign exchange, and encourage prudent management of public finances. These policies were aimed at stabilising the economy.
(v) Reduction in smuggling and economic sabotage: The regime adopted strict measures against smuggling, illegal currency trafficking, hoarding, and other forms of economic sabotage. Border controls were strengthened, while offenders were arrested and prosecuted to protect the nation’s economy.
(vi) Currency change in 1984: The government changed the colour of the naira currency notes in 1984 to reduce currency trafficking, discourage illegal cash hoarding, combat counterfeiting, and improve control over the country’s money supply.
(vii) Promotion of self-reliance: The regime encouraged Nigerians to patronise locally manufactured goods and reduced dependence on imported products. This policy was intended to stimulate local industries, conserve foreign exchange, and strengthen the national economy.
(viii) Reduction of ghost workers: Verification exercises were carried out in the public service to identify and remove fictitious names from government payrolls. This reduced wasteful expenditure and ensured that public funds were spent on genuine employees.
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